| Abstract: |
Introduction: In today's society, the increasing number of dual-income families has made work--family conflict. This conflict disproportionately affects women (Grönlund & Öun, 2018). Previous studies have emphasized the heightened emotional strain among mothers compared to fathers, identifying maternal guilt as both a near-universal and culturally reinforced phenomenon (Seagram & Daniluk, 2002). Guilt about parenting has especially has been linked to internalized self-blame and negative self-evaluation (Tangney et al., 2007; Haslam et al., 2019). An important psychological construct that can moderates parenting outcomes is Parental Reflective Functioning (PRF)--the caregiver's ability to understand their child's behaviors in terms of underlying mental states, intentions, and emotions (Slade, 2005). High PRF enables parents to respond sensitively with coherence to the child's needs, whereas low PRF tendencies lead to misinterpretations of the child's actions as hostile or manipulative. PRF is operationalized in three factors: Pre-Mentalizing Modes (PM), Certainty about Mental States (CMS), and Interest and Curiosity in Mental States (IC) (Luyten et al., 2017). Low reflective functioning has been associated with both internalizing (anxiety and withdrawal) and externalizing (aggression and impulsivity) problems in children (Ensink et al., 2016; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2019). The interaction between guilt about parenting and PRF remains understudied in our country. Iranian mothers, situated within a collectivist and gendernormative culture, often experience moralized expectations of maternal sacrifice, which may intensify guilt when work commitments reduce caregiving time. This study therefore aimed to examine the moderating role of PRF, particularly its subdimensions, in the relationship between maternal guilt about parenting and children's behavioral problems (internalizing and externalizing) among working mothers in Tehran. Methodology: This correlational, cross-sectional study used a descriptive--analytical design. The population included working mothers in Tehran with children aged 3-6 years in 2024. Using convenience sampling, 225 mothers participated voluntarily via online questionnaires distributed through kindergartens. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Tehran, and participants provided informed consent. Findings: Correlational analyses revealed significant positive correlation between guilt about parenting and pre-mentalizing (r = .40, p < .01), internalizing behaviors (r = .55, p < .01), and externalizing behaviors (r = .34, p < .01). Guilt about parenting correlated negatively with certainty about mental states (CMS) (r = -.15, p < .01), indicating that mothers who doubted their understanding of their child's mind tended to feel guiltier. Pre-mentalizing correlated positively with both internalizing (r = .35) and externalizing (r = .23) problems, confirming its maladaptive nature. Conclusion: The findings affirm that guilt about parenting functions as a risk factor for behavioral and emotional problems in preschool children, particularly when mothers exhibit deficient reflective functioning characterized by pre-mentalizing tendencies. In contrast, mothers capable of understanding their children's inner experiences--rather than attributing negative intentions--appear less affected by guilt-driven distortions in parenting. The results underscore pre-mentalizing (PM) as the only PRF dimension exerting a statistically significant moderating effect. Neither certainty about mental states (CMS) nor interest and curiosity (IC) altered the guilt--behavior relationship. This suggests that the absence of mentalization, rather than its excessive or misguided presence, intensifies the intergenerational transmission of emotional distress. The study carries several theoretical and cultural implications. Within Iranian culture, where idealized motherhood is highly esteemed, working mothers may internalize guilt as moral failure. Such cultural expectations can make it harder for mothers to understand their children's feelings and may lead them to blame themselves for their children's problems." Practically, these results highlight the need for clinical and organizational interventions aimed at supporting working mothers. Psychoeducational programs that enhance reflective functioning may mitigate mother's guilt and the negative impact of that guilt on parent--child dynamics. Similarly, workplace policies that reduce work--family conflict can lower guilt about parenting and promote healthier family functioning. Limitations include the exclusive reliance on self-report measures and a geographically limited sample of urban mothers. Future research could include fathers and rural populations, examine cultural moderators such as gender-role beliefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] |