Decades of crisis

• List of Illustrations
• p. xiii

• Acknowledgments
• p. xvii

• Foreword
• p. xxi

• Maps
• p. xxv

• I.
• The Crisis of Modernization: The Ideologies of Revolts and Their Expression in Art, 1900--1918
• p. 1

• 1.
• Catching Up or Lagging Behind?
• p. 3

• The Dual Revolution and the Flourishing of Capitalism in Western Europe
• p. 3

• The Challenge for the Underdeveloped: Temptation and Threat
• p. 4

• Political Responses: Reforms and Revolutions
• p. 5

• Latecomers in an Internationalized World Economy
• p. 11

• The Role of Railroads and Their Spin-Off Effects
• p. 13

• Agriculture and the Export Sectors
• p. 14

• International Division of Labor and Its Impact on the Balkans
• p. 16

• The Awakening Giant
• p. 17

• The Polish and Baltic "Miracles"
• p. 18

• Hungary's Semisuccessful Modernization
• p. 19

• Industrial Breakthrough in Austria and the Czech Lands
• p. 20

• The Semifailure of Central and Eastern European Modernization
• p. 22

• 2.
• The Peculiar Pattern of Central and Eastern European Societies: The Remnants of Noble and Incomplete Societies
• p. 24

• The Deficiency of the Dual Revolution and Its Social Impact
• p. 24

• The Large Estate and the Remnants of Noble Society
• p. 25

• The Weakness of the Middle Class: Lucken-Positionen and the Emergence of the "Jewish Question"
• p. 32

• The Incomplete Societies and the Bureaucratic-Military Parvenu in the Balkans
• p. 40

• Minorities and National Conflicts
• p. 43

• 3.
• The Ideologies of Revolts and Revolutions: The Birth of Nationalist, Communist, and Fascist Ideas
• p. 48

• Nationalism
• p. 50

• The Eastern European Approach to Nation Building
• p. 52

• The Peculiarities of National Ideology: Nation-State versus Kulturnation
• p. 53

• From Cultural Movement to Mass Organizations
• p. 56

• Communism
• p. 61

• The Rise of Western Socialist Reformism
• p. 64

• The Emergence of Eastern Revolutionary Leninism
• p. 65

• Fascism
• p. 70

• Populism and Rising Right-Wing Radicalism in Central and Eastern Europe
• p. 76

• 4.
• Revolution in Art and the Art in Revolution
• p. 84

• Art Nouveau, Jugendstil, Sezession
• p. 87

• "Ornamentation Is Sin"
• p. 91

• The Expression of "Irrational Reality" in Literature
• p. 92

• The Revolution in Music: Schonberg, Stravinsky, and Bartok
• p. 96

• Revolt against Traditional Beauty and Harmony in Visual Art: Kandinsky, Kupka, Brancusi, and Archipenko
• p. 100

• "Destruction, Too, Is Creation"
• p. 104

• "Wipe Out the Past Once and for All": Constructivism and Suprematism
• p. 106

• II.
• Class Revolutions and Counter-revolutions: National Revolutions and Their Right-Wing Deformation, 1918-1929
• p. 113

• Introduction
• p. 115

• 5.
• Class Revolutions--Counterrevolutions
• p. 119

• Russia's Two Revolutions in 1917
• p. 119

• Hungary's Two Revolutions
• p. 124

• Bulgaria's One and a Half Revolutions
• p. 130

• Revolutionary Attempts in the Baltic Countries and Austria
• p. 133

• The Wave of Counterrevolutions
• p. 138

• 6.
• Belated National Revolutions
• p. 145

• Plans to Create Democratic Confederations
• p. 146

• Versailles and the Great Powers' Policy of Balkanization
• p. 151

• The Polish Case
• p. 154

• The Independent Baltic States
• p. 159

• The Making of Czechoslovakia
• p. 163

• The Making of Yugoslavia
• p. 168

• Making a Great Romania
• p. 173

• The Unstoppable New Waves: National Revolutions without Nations
• p. 178

• 7.
• From National Revolution to Nationalist Authoritarianism
• p. 185

• Extreme Ethnic-Religious Diversity
• p. 185

• Nationalism Multiplies by Bipartition
• p. 190

• Nationalism Breaks Loose: The Link to Right-Wing Authoritarianism
• p. 194

• 8.
• From Bolshevik Revolution to a National-Imperial Modernization Dictatorship
• p. 203

• The Hope of a World Revolution
• p. 203

• The Road of Transition: The Introduction of War Communism
• p. 204

• A New Approach toward Transition: The New Economic Policy
• p. 207

• Debates on the Destiny of the Revolution: "Socialism in One Country"
• p. 210

• The Concept of Forced Industrialization and Central Planning
• p. 214

• Merging "Socialism in One Country" and the Program of Forced Industrialization
• p. 219

• 9.
• Economic Nationalism and Its Consequences
• p. 224

• Inflation and Despair
• p. 224

• Economic Slowdown and Structural Crisis in the World Economy
• p. 227

• Stabilization Efforts
• p. 231

• The Principle and Practice of Nationalist Economic Policy
• p. 234

• Agricultural Protectionism in Central Europe
• p. 239

• The Decline of International Trade
• p. 241

• Success Stories of the Twenties
• p. 243

• The Lack of Technological-Structural Adjustment
• p. 244

• III.
• The Great Depression and Its Impact: Social Changes; The Triumph of the Right; The Art of the Crisis and the Crisis in Art, 1929-1939
• p. 247

• Introduction
• p. 249

• 10.
• A Distinctive Great Depression in Central and Eastern Europe
• p. 253

• Moderate Industrial Decline
• p. 253

• The Agricultural Crisis and Declining Terms of Trade
• p. 255

• The Debt Crisis and the Golgotha of the Debtors
• p. 259

• Lack of Adjustment to the Structural Crisis
• p. 261

• 11.
• From the Great Depression to Nazi and Stalinist Isolationist Autarchy
• p. 266

• Emergency Measures to Avoid Financial Collapse
• p. 266

• Government Interventions and Self-Sufficiency
• p. 269

• The Creation of a German-Led, Isolationist, Regional Agreement System
• p. 273

• Isolationism and Self-Sufficiency in the Stalinist Soviet Union
• p. 278

• 12.
• Social Changes: New Forces and Factors
• p. 287

• The Peasantry
• p. 287

• The Emergence of a Confused Lower Middle Class
• p. 294

• The New Strata of Workers and Humiliating Unemployment
• p. 297

• 13.
• Political Impact: The Dirty Torrent of Dictatorships
• p. 300

• Engelbert Dollfuss: A Compromise between Political Catholicism and Heimwehr Fascism
• p. 302

• Gyula Gombos and His Planned "Radical Operations": Hungary Shifts Further to the Right
• p. 308

• Josef Pilsudski and the Dictatorless Dictatorship in Poland
• p. 314

• Presidential Dictatorships in the Baltic Countries
• p. 318

• Royal Dictatorships in the Balkans
• p. 324

• The Characteristics of Fascism and the Authoritarian Regimes in Central and Eastern Europe
• p. 340

• From Bolshevik Revolution to a Deformed Party-State Dictatorship
• p. 345

• 14.
• The Art of Crisis and the Crisis in Art
• p. 358

• Back to Reality: Protest against a Dadaist World
• p. 359

• The Straitjacket of Arts: Nazi-Fascist "Retro-Garde"
• p. 366

• The Stalinist Cultural Dictate: Mandatory Socialist Realism
• p. 373

• Conservative Academism and the Impact of Fascist Art
• p. 383

• Conclusion
• p. 396

• Bibliography
• p. 407

• Index
• p. 473