Gender equality in law

• Acknowledgements
• p. vii

• Table of Cases
• p. xv

• Table of Statutes
• p. xix

• Table of Parliamentary Debates
• p. xxv

• List of Abbreviations
• p. xxvii

• 1
• Introduction
• p. 1

• I
• Main Argument
• p. 4

• A
• Women and Gender
• p. 5

• B
• Equality and Anti-Discrimination
• p. 6

• C
• The Role of Law and Rights
• p. 6

• II
• Book Structure and Chapter Summaries
• p. 7

• III
• Feminist Legal Genealogy-The Methodology
• p. 11

• A
• The Feminist Framework
• p. 12

• i
• Feminist Questions and Theoretical Concepts
• p. 12

• ii
• The Gender-Progressive Standard
• p. 15

• iii
• Why Use Equality?
• p. 16

• B
• Scope of the Book
• p. 17

• i
• Thematic Scope of the Enquiry
• p. 17

• ii
• Territorial Scope-A Single-Country Case-Study
• p. 18

• iii
• Territorial and Temporal Scope-Pre-Communist Legacies and the Germanic Space
• p. 20

• C
• A 'Law in Context' Approach-Sources and Method
• p. 21

• i
• Primary Sources and the Difference between the Periods
• p. 21

• ii
• A Mixed Inductive and Deductive Analysis
• p. 23

• Part I
• State Socialism

• 2
• The Three Stages of Regulation of Women and Gender
• p. 27

• I
• Equalisation (1948-62)
• p. 29

• A
• Pre-Communist Foundations
• p. 29

• B
• Stalinism
• p. 30

• C
• Equality Rights of the Sexes as a Constitutional Principle
• p. 33

• D
• Equality in the Family
• p. 33

• i
• New Family?
• p. 36

• E
• Reproduction-Protecting the Health of Women
• p. 37

• F
• Work and Welfare
• p. 38

• i
• Equal Access to Paid Work for Women-a Right or an Obligation?
• p. 38

• ii
• Protective Provisions and Welfare
• p. 40

• II
• Reflection (1962-68)
• p. 41

• A
• The Period of Reform
• p. 41

• B
• Family-Between Equality and Tradition
• p. 44

• i
• The Triple Burden
• p. 46

• C
• Reproduction in the Time of the 'Population Crisis'
• p. 48

• D
• A Turn from Equality in Paid Work to Care
• p. 49

• i
• Protecting Motherhood
• p. 49

• ii
• Bans on Work
• p. 51

• E
• 'Freedom'
• p. 52

• III
• The Era of the Family (1969-89)
• p. 53

• A
• Normalisation
• p. 53

• B
• A Retreat into the Private Sphere
• p. 56

• i
• The 'Wrongly Understood Emancipation'
• p. 57

• C
• Reproduction-Assuring the 'Quantity' and 'Quality' of the Population
• p. 59

• D
• Pro-Population Policies
• p. 61

• IV
• Conclusions
• p. 62

• 3
• State-Socialist Law and Rights
• p. 64

• I
• From Activism to Formalism
• p. 65

• A
• Early Activism (1948-53)
• p. 65

• B
• Stabilisation (1954-68)
• p. 67

• C
• Normalisation (1969-89)
• p. 68

• II
• Characteristics of State-Socialist Law
• p. 70

• A
• Law as a Tool of Social Change
• p. 70

• B
• The Decline of Private Law and the Rise of Public Law
• p. 71

• C
• Dubious Normativity and Disregard for Law
• p. 74

• III
• Rights
• p. 76

• A
• The Primacy of Social Rights and the Socialist Understanding of Rights
• p. 76

• B
• Collective Interest
• p. 78

• C
• Absence of Avenues for Rights Enforcement
• p. 80

• IV
• Conclusions
• p. 82

• 4
• Equality as Socio-Economic Levelling
• p. 83

• I
• Equality Trajectories
• p. 84

• A
• Formal and Substantive Equality
• p. 85

• B
• Three Phases of Equality and Anti-Discrimination Law
• p. 86

• II
• Legal Guarantees-Equality as a Right?
• p. 89

• A
• Sex Equality as a Proclamation but Not an Anti-Discrimination Right
• p. 90

• III
• Substantive Equality along the Axis of Class
• p. 92

• IV
• Emphasis on Difference
• p. 94

• A
• Special Treatment of Women
• p. 95

• B
• Different and Worse Treatment-Inequality Not Identified as Sex Discrimination
• p. 97

• V
• Beyond Equality?
• p. 99

• VI
• Conclusions
• p. 103

• 5
• Blindness to Gender and Patriarchy
• p. 105

• I
• Aspirations versus Reality
• p. 109

• A
• The 'Woman Question' in Marxism-Leninism and State-Socialist Aspirations
• p. 109

• B
• (In) Equality in Reality
• p. 111

• II
• Grappling with Explanations of Inequality
• p. 113

• A
• Denials of Inequality
• p. 114

• B
• Denials of Injustice
• p. 114

• C
• Denials of Responsibility
• p. 115

• D
• Seeing Gendered Causes?
• p. 116

• III
• Intellectual Roots of the Limitations
• p. 117

• A
• Capitalism, not Patriarchy
• p. 117

• B
• The 'Natural' Difference of Women
• p. 119

• C
• Production versus Reproduction
• p. 123

• D
• Materialism and Culture
• p. 126

• IV
• Feminism?
• p. 128

• A
• The Prevented Bottom-Up Critique and the 'Threefold Expropriation'
• p. 129

• B
• Women as 'Communist Subjects' and their 'Liberation' from the Public Sphere
• p. 130

• C
• What Happened to Men?
• p. 132

• D
• Residual and Reactive Turn to Traditional Gender
• p. 134

• E
• The Regime as the Perceived Source of Oppression
• p. 135

• V
• Conclusions
• p. 137

• Part II
• Post-Socialism

• 6
• Women and Gender After 1989
• p. 141

• I
• A Quarter Century of Post-Socialism
• p. 142

• A
• Changes and Legacies
• p. 142

• B
• The 'Star Pupil' (1989-97)
• p. 146

• C
• Sobering Up and Trudging Along (1997-2006)
• p. 149

• D
• Cuts and a Conservative Turn (2006-14)
• p. 151

• E
• Arrival of the New Left? (2014 Onward)
• p. 152

• II
• The Model Family-Complete, Married, Heterosexual and with a Traditional Division of Labour
• p. 158

• A
• The Rise of a 'New' Family? Same-Sex and Unmarried Partners
• p. 158

• B
• Supporting a Traditional Division of Labour
• p. 162

• C
• Bias towards Complete Families, Against Single Parenthood
• p. 163

• D
• Women's Reproductive and Health Autonomy?
• p. 166

• III
• From Motherhood to Parenthood? The Question of Childcare
• p. 169

• A
• Protecting Motherhood and Parenthood in Labour Law
• p. 170

• B
• Protecting all Women as Mothers?
• p. 172

• C
• Bringing Fathers into Care?
• p. 175

• D
• Work or Care? A Closer Look at the Parental Benefit
• p. 177

• IV
• Addressing Gender-Based Violence without Seeing Gender
• p. 180

• A
• Positive Developments in Substantive Criminal Law and Beyond
• p. 180

• B
• Refusal to See Gender
• p. 183

• C
• Criminalising and Blaming the 'Victim'
• p. 184

• V
• Conclusions
• p. 188

• 7
• Post-Socialist Law and Rights
• p. 190

• I
• Transforming State-Socialist Law
• p. 192

• II
• Law-Legacies of State Socialism
• p. 193

• A
• Continued Disregard for the Law
• p. 193

• B
• Legal Formalism
• p. 194

• III
• Rights-Legacies of State Socialism
• p. 196

• A
• Primacy of Socio-Economic Rights and a Parental Conception of Rights?
• p. 196

• B
• 'Collective Interest' or Anti-Majoritarianism?
• p. 197

• IV
• A New Understanding of Law and Rights
• p. 198

• A
• Neoliberalism
• p. 199

• B
• The Anti-Regulation Narrative and Its Selectiveness
• p. 200

• C
• Manners or Morals, not Law
• p. 202

• D
• Conflating Economic and Social Notions of Privacy
• p. 203

• E
• Rights as Freedoms for Some
• p. 205

• F
• Fears of Abuse of Legal Provisions
• p. 207

• G
• Lack of Critical Reflection
• p. 209

• V
• Conclusions
• p. 210

• 8
• Equality and Anti-Discrimination after 1989: Resisting the Ideas and the Legal Concepts
• p. 212

• I
• Constitutional Law and the Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination
• p. 213

• A
• Sex Equality for Men?
• p. 216

• i
• The Early Cases-Addressing Protection and Preferential Treatment of "Women
• p. 217

• ii
• Newer Cases
• p. 222

• iii
• What Can Cases Brought by Men Tell Us about Gender Equality?
• p. 223

• II
• Statutory Law and the EU as a Driver of Legal Change
• p. 225

• A
• The EU Equality Acquis and its Rationales
• p. 226

• B
• The EU as a Driver for Change
• p. 227

• C
• Anti-Discrimination Law Merely a Membership Obligation
• p. 229

• D
• A Reluctant Transposition of Anti-Discrimination Law
• p. 230

• i
• Before the ADA
• p. 231

• ii
• The ADA-as Little and as Late as Possible
• p. 232

• E
• Giving Full Effect?
• p. 235

• F
• Sex Discrimination Litigation before Ordinary Courts
• p. 238

• III
• Anti-Discrimination Law before the Courts
• p. 243

• A
• Avoiding Anti-Discrimination Adjudication
• p. 244

• i
• Concentrating on Formal Questions
• p. 245

• ii
• Shrinking the Scope of Reviewable Acts
• p. 247

• iii
• Redirecting Applicants to Other Claims
• p. 250

• B
• Greater Protection for Enumerated Grounds?
• p. 251

• C
• How Do We Know the Ground Was Sex? Motive and Proof
• p. 256

• i
• Looking for Fault
• p. 257

• ii
• Burden of Proof
• p. 259

• iii
• Interventions by the Constitutional Court
• p. 262

• D
• Indirect Discrimination-Blindness to Structural Biases
• p. 263

• IV
• Understanding Equality and Ami-Discrimination after 1989
• p. 268

• A
• At Most Formal, Certainly Not Substantive Equality
• p. 268

• B
• Women Too Different to be Discriminated Against?
• p. 271

• C
• The Individualization of Discrimination
• p. 272

• V
• Conclusions
• p. 273

• 9
• Wanted: Gender and Feminism
• p. 276

• I
• Aspirations Lost
• p. 277

• A
• Socialist Residue, Conservative Resurgence and the Neoliberal Rise
• p. 277

• B
• Political Aspirations?
• p. 278

• II
• Denials of Gender Inequality
• p. 282

• A
• Denials of the Existence of Inequality
• p. 282

• B
• Denials of Injustice
• p. 283

• C
• Denials of Responsibility
• p. 285

• D
• Blindness to the Gendered Structure of Society
• p. 285

• III
• Missing Feminism
• p. 288

• A
• Why the Rejection of Feminism?
• p. 289

• B
• The Presence of Undermining and Absence of Supporting Perspectives
• p. 291

• C
• The Need for Second-Wave Radical Feminism
• p. 292

• D
• The Need for Feminist Legal Scholarship
• p. 295

• IV
• Conclusions
• p. 298

• 10
• Conclusions
• p. 300

• I
• Women and Gender
• p. 300

• II
• Equality and Anti-Discrimination
• p. 302

• III
• Law and Rights
• p. 303

• IV
• Continuity and Discontinuity
• p. 304

• Bibliography
• p. 308

• Index
• p. 333