An unsettled nation: Moldova in the geopolitics of Russia, Romania, and Ukraine

• Foreword
• 25

• Preface
• 33

• Acknowledgments
• 35

• Abbreviations
• 39

• Introduction

• Theoretical Framework: Nation-Building and Separatism
• 41

• The Historical Context
• 42

• Nationalism and Separatism: Linking the Imperial and Soviet Past with the Present
• 47

• Objectives, Research Questions, and Working Assumptions
• 51

• Prior Research: Historiography and Geopolitics
• 53

• Materials and Methodology
• 63

• Archives, Published Documents, and other Materials
• 63

• Interviewees and Interviews
• 65

• The Thematic Structure and the Chronological Framework
• 67

• A Note on Transliteration
• 69

• Language and Terminology
• 70

• I
• Moldova and Transnistria: Historical Background and Political Roots, 1917-1985
• 71

• I.1
• Moldova: Past Domestic and Foreign State-Building Projects
• 73

• I.1.1
• A Bessarabian Project that Failed: The Moldavian Democratic Republic
• 73

• I.1.2
• The MASSR: The Second Moldavian Republic
• 85

• I.1.3
• "Sunny Moldavia": From Foundation to Perestroika
• 101

• I.2
• Nation-Building: Challenges of Divisive Cultural and Identity Politics
• 112

• I.2.1
• Imperial Russia's Moldavians: The Impeding of Making Romanians
• 112

• I.2.2
• From Moldavians into Romanians: Instilling a New National Consciousness
• 117

• I.2.3
• The Making of Interwar Soviet Moldavians in the MASSR
• 121

• I.2.4
• United and Merged: The Making of Soviet Moldavians in the MSSR
• 125

• II
• Perestroika, Nationalism and Internationalism in "Sunny Moldavia," 1985-1991
• 143

• II.1
• On the Eve: "Sunny Moldavia" Prior to Perestroika
• 144

• II.2
• "We Are Romanians!": The National Awakening of Soviet Moldavians
• 152

• II.2.1
• The Nationalist Framework and the Fight for Language Legislation
• 153

• II.2.2
• Perestroika, Glasnost, and Pan-Romanian Mobilization
• 163

• II.3
• Russian speakers in Soviet Moldavia: "Suitcase, Train Station, Russia!"
• 176

• II.3.1
• Becoming Domestic Outsiders: "Sunny Moldavia's" "Russians"
• 177

• II.3.2
• The Counter-Mobilization and the Struggle for the Russian Language
• 180

• II.3.3
• Separatism at the "Gates": The Warning Signs
• 186

• II.4
• Toward the Break: The Moldavian SSR, September 1989-December 1991
• 192

• II.4.1
• Unfolding Separatism, Romanian Symbols, and "The Bridges of Flowers"
• 193

• II.4.2
• Soviet Moldavia: Disintegration, Separation, and Independence
• 202

• III
• Damaged Peace: Preconditions That Heralded the Transnistrian War, 1989-1991
• 209

• III.1
• Transnistria: The Legitimization of Separatism and Justification of Self-Defense
• 210

• III.2
• Moldova: Failed Attempts to Preserve Political Unity and Territorial Integrity
• 215

• III.3
• Sliding Toward War: Pre-War Violence
• 228

• IV
• The Heat before the "Freeze": The Transnistrian War, 1992
• 237

• IV.1
• Moldova's Fighters: Duty, Patriotism, Fear, and Solidarity
• 237

• IV.2
• "This Was My War!" Defending Transnistria: Romania-phobia and Slavic Brotherhood
• 248

• IV.3
• The Involvement of Romania, Russia, and Ukraine
• 253

• IV.3.1
• Romania
• 253

• IV.3.2
• Russia
• 256

• IV.3.3
• Ukraine
• 261

• IV.4
• The Course of the War: Combat Actions and Wartime Diplomacy, 2 March-21 July 1992
• 268

• IV.4.1
• The Outbreak of War
• 268

• IV.4.2
• The War and Wartime Diplomacy
• 276

• V
• Separatism in Postwar Moldova: International Aspects, 1993-2013
• 287

• V.1
• The Impact and Geopolitical Consequences of the War
• 287

• V.2
• The Transnistrian Diplomatic Deadlock
• 290

• V.2.1
• Preconditions to the Failure of Negotiations
• 291

• V.2.2
• Postwar Diplomacy and the Stalling of Negotiations
• 297

• V.3
• Impediments to Reconciliation
• 303

• V.3.1
• The Cold War Relationship between Transnistria and Moldova
• 303

• V.3.2
• Russia's Questionable Commitment to Moldova
• 305

• V.3.3
• Moldo-Romanian Unionism
• 309

• V.3.4
• Relations between Moldova and Ukraine
• 314

• V.4
• Failed Foreign Reconciliation Projects
• 319

• V.4.1
• The OSCE Mission in the Republic of Moldova
• 319

• V.4.2
• Russia's Plans for a Settlement
• 321

• V.4.3
• Ukraine's Yushchenko Plan
• 327

• VI
• The Nature of the Transnistrian Conflict and the Prospects of Its Resolution, 1993-2013
• 335

• VI.1
• Defining the 'Frozen Conflict' in the Republic of Moldova
• 335

• VI.1.1
• Views from the West
• 336

• VI.1.2
• Views from Romania
• 337

• VI.1.3
• Views from Ukraine
• 339

• VI.1.4
• Views from Russia
• 341

• VI.1.5
• "Protracted" rather than "Frozen"
• 342

• VI.2
• Assessing the International Input on the Transnistrian Problem
• 344

• VI.2.1
• Views from Russia
• 345

• VI.2.2
• Views from Ukraine
• 346

• VI.2.3
• Views from the West
• 347

• VI.2.4
• Views from Romania
• 350

• VI.3
• Expert Views on the Solutions and Prospects of Separatism
• 353

• VI.3.1
• Views from the West
• 354

• VI.3.2
• Views from Ukraine
• 357

• VI.3.3
• Views from Romania
• 358

• VI.3.4
• Views from Russia
• 360

• VII
• The Domestic Discourse on the Transnistrian Problem, 1993-2013
• 365

• VII.1
• Political Parties and Developments
• 365

• VII.2
• Divergent Views of History
• 371

• VII.2.1
• The Interpretation of the Past
• 372

• VII.2.2
• The Characterization of the Present
• 375

• VII.2.3
• Imagining the Future
• 379

• VII.3
• The Transnistrian Problem in Political Platforms
• 382

• VII.3.1
• Conflicting Approaches to Settling the Dispute
• 383

• VII.3.2
• Reality vs. Political Platforms
• 388

• VII.4
• Civil Society Organizations and the Issue of Transnistria
• 393

• VII.4.1
• The December 2012 Memorandum: The Purpose and Content
• 395

• VII.4.2
• The December 2012 Memorandum: Impact and Assessments
• 399

• VII.4.3
• Positions of Other Moldovan and Transnistrian NGOs
• 403

• VII.5
• Assessments of a Political Fiasco: The Unproductive Contribution
• 405

• VII.5.1
• Chisinau and Tiraspol Government Officials
• 405

• VII.5.2
• Domestic Civil Society Experts
• 408

• VII.5.3
• Accredited International Experts
• 410

• VII.5.4
• The Opinions of the General Public
• 412

• VIII
• Separatism and Nation-Building: Education and the Forging of Conflicting Identities, 1991-2013
• 417

• VIII.1
• Power of the Primers: Imagining the "Motherland," Constructing Identities
• 417

• VIII.1.1
• The Predecessors: Soviet Primers
• 418

• VIII.1.2
• The Successors: Post-Soviet Primers in Moldova and Transnistria
• 427

• VIII.1.3
• Between Ethnocentric Nationalism and Civic Identity
• 433

• VIII.2
• The Stumbling of Reconciliation: Disruptive History Teaching
• 443

• VIII.2.1
• History Education in Moldova
• 443

• VIII.2.2
• History Education in Transnistria
• 449

• VIII.3
• History Narratives in Moldovan and Transnistrian Textbooks
• 453

• VIII.3.1
• Imperial Russia: Territorial Acquisitions and Nation-Building
• 454

• VIII.3.2
• Romanian Bessarabia and the MASSR between the World Wars
• 461

• VIII.3.3
• The Second World War, the Great Patriotic War, and the Holocaust
• 466

• VIII.3.4
• Postwar Recovery, Perestroika, and the Rise of Nationalism
• 469

• VIII.3.5
• Soviet Collapse, the Transnistrian War, and Bloody Separation
• 470

• IX
• Nation-Building and National Identity: Political Symbolism and Nationality Policies, 1989-2013
• 473

• IX.1
• National Symbols: Unity vs. Division
• 475

• IX.1.1
• Between Soviet Legacy and National Heritage: Flags, Coat of Arms, and Anthems
• 475

• IX.1.2
• National Symbols: Perceptions and Attitudes
• 482

• IX.2
• Holidays for Nation-Building?
• 485

• IX.3
• Identity in Politics and Nationality Policies
• 489

• IX.3.1
• Identity: Constitution vs. Reality
• 490

• IX.3.2
• The Issue of Ethnic Identities and the Authorities' Nationality Policies
• 493

• IX.3.3
• The Problem of Identities in the Platforms of Political Parties
• 497

• IX.4
• Unsettled Identities and Self-Identification: "Amphibians," "Budweisers," or Undefined?
• 504

• Conclusion
• 513

• Appendices
• 541

• Appendix 1
• Interviews
• 541

• 1.1
• Project description and consent form for interviews
• 541

• 1.2
• Interview Questions. Group I
• 543

• 1.3
• Interview Questions. Group II
• 545

• 1.4
• List of Respondents
• 546

• 1.4.1
• Moldova. Group I
• 546

• 1.4.2
• Moldova. Group II
• 550

• 1.4.3
• Transnistria. Group I
• 551

• 1.4.4
• Transnistria. Group II
• 553

• 1.4.5
• Romania. Group I
• 556

• 1.4.6
• Russia. Group I
• 557

• 1.4.7
• Ukraine. Group I
• 558

• 1.4.8
• The EU, the OSCE, and Germany
• 559

• Appendix 2
• Political Parties and Organizations
• 560

• Table 1
• Moldova. Active political parties and organizations
• 560

• Table 2
• Transnistria. Active political parties and organizations
• 563

• Table 3
• The representation of the Moldovan political parties in Parliament after elections
• 564

• Table 4
• The representation of the Transnistrian political parties in the Parliament of the TMR after elections
• 567

• Table 5
• The priority placed by the Moldovan parties on "Transnistria," "Foreign Policy," and "National Security" in their political platforms
• 569

• Table 6
• The priority placed by the Transnistrian parties on "Transnistria," "Foreign Policy," and "National Security" in their political platforms
• 571

• Table 7
• The position of sections on the Transnistrian problem within the platforms of Chisinau-based political parties
• 572

• Table 8
• Moldova. Types of approaches to the Transnistrian problem articulated in the platforms of political parties
• 574

• Table 9
• Transnistria. Types of approaches to the Transnistrian problem articulated in the platforms of political parties
• 576

• Table 10
• Frequency of the Declarations regarding "Transnistria" "Foreign Policy/EU Integration", and "National Security" made by the Moldovan political parties between 2002-2012
• 577

• Table 11
• Annual frequency of Declarations regarding "Transnistria" "Foreign Policy/EU Integration", and "National Security" made by the Moldovan political parties between 2002-2012
• 579

• Table 12
• Frequency of Declarations regarding the Transnistrian problem made by the Moldovan political parties between 2002-2012
• 580

• Appendix 3
• List of the given names
• 582

• Appendix 4
• Images
• 583

• 4.1
• Billboards. Moldova (All in Romanian only)
• 583

• 4.1.1
• "Love Your Language! Love Your Country!"
• 583

• 4.1.2
• "Moldova - My Motherland."
• 584

• 4.1.3
• "The Republic of Moldova Is My Motherland."
• 585

• 4.1.4
• "The Republic of Moldova Is My Motherland."
• 586

• 4.2
• Billboards. Transnistria (In two languages)
• 587

• 4.2.1
• "The Motherland Is Not For Sale!" (in Russian)
• 587

• 4.2.2
• "The Republic Is Not For Sell!" (in Cyrillic Romanian [Moldovan])
• 588

• Bibliography
• 589

• Index
• 643